IOLs must be centered precisely to achieve optimal refractive outcomes from advanced lens technology.
To assist with centration, clinicians have used ocular angles, such as angle kappa, to describe the gap between the visual axis and pupillary axis. However, there have been conflicting definitions when using these terms.
Historically, various terms have been used to describe reference axes. The visual axis represents the line from the fixation point through the nodal point, with the assumption that this line connects with the fovea. However, this is only a theoretical construct. In (Read more...)
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